Religion and International Relations

Religion and International Relations Introduction Religion (noun): the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods. In modern times, religion isn’t just the belief and worship of a supernatural entity. It is a way of life. Since birth, children are indoctrinated into their parent’s religion. Traditions, practices and values, both positive and negative are taught till they become common fact. Religion permeates into the lives of people completely and seamlessly. Given its pervasive nature, it is unsurprising that religion affects relations between people and on a larger scale relationships between nations. This project analyses the effects of religion on the international scale. Through case studies, it will highlight the advantageous as well as detrimental role of religion in maintaining peace between countries. The article will not focus on the various conflicts/ peace processes themselves, instead, it will detail the religious background, the issues and proposed solutions. Case Study 1: Jerusalem and the Israel – Palestine Conflict Background to the Conflict: Jerusalem and other holy sites of the Middle – East are holy to the three major Abrahamic religions namely – Christianity, Judaism and Islam. Historically speaking, there have been multiple conflicts over the ownership of these locations. The most famous being The Holy Crusades. In modern times, this has continued into the Israel – Palestine conflict. The roots of the conflict lie in the late 19th and early 20th century. This period saw the rise of nationalist movements amongst Jews and also amongst Arabs. Both movements wished for a sovereign state for their people, in the region. It was also a time of large scale Jewish immigration into the region. Jews were escaping the chaos caused by the Russian Revolution and later the Holocaust during WW2. In 1920,Haj Amin al-Hussein emerged as the leader for the Palestinian Arab Nationalist Movement. The man saw the Jewish Nationalist Movement and Jewish immigration as the primary enemies to his goal. This led to large scale riots and violence between the two sides. Sporadic bursts of violence continued till the start of WW2. Post WW2 tensions arose due to the large scale immigration of Holocaust survivors. This was fuelled by the stories that were coming out the Holocaust. The support resulted in Jews attacking on the Arabs as well as the British Administration. In 1947, the British Mandate approached the United Nations to provide a solution to the problems in Palestine. The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine proposed a division of territory on the basis of religion. The area was to be divided into three parts. An independent Arab state and an Independent Jewish state while Jerusalem and Bethlehem remained under UN control. Jews were dissatisfied by the loss of Jerusalem but accepted the decision. However it was vehemently opposed by the Arabs. This led to eruption of a Civil War in the region. Jews in the region were conscripted into an army. With British aid, they annexed territories to form modern day Israel. The Conflict: In 1948, The Israeli Declaration of Independence was signed officially declaring the State of Israel as an independent nation. Since then the region has been under multiple wars and conflicts. The Arab nations surrounding Israel universally opposed its existence. They trained armies and rebels to conquer the nation. In 1967 during The Six Day War, Israel occupied areas of Palestine beyond its borders. Including the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Israelis have since started settling in the region. Despite multiple attempts at peace the standing issues of the conflict could not be resolved. From 2005 onwards the Hamas organisation gained prominence in Palestine. The fighting in recent years occurred due to rocket attacks coming from both side of the Gaza strip. The Standing Issues: Jerusalem Jerusalem is the most major issue. Both sides claim ownership of the city. As stated previously Jerusalem is of great significance to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam being an important and holy city for all of them. For Judaism in particular Jerusalem is the holiest city in the world. It is the former location of the Jewish temples on theTemple Mountand was the capital of the ancient Israelite kingdom. It also contains the Jewish holy site, The Western Wall and the Mount of Olives. Hence the Israelis are unwilling to part with the city. For Islam, Jerusalem is the site ofMohammads Night Journeyto heaven, and theal-Aqsa mosque. For Christians, Jerusalem is the location ofthe Crucifixion of Christand theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre. Presently, Israel considers the complete Jerusalem as part of its sovereign region. Jerusalem also is its capital. No other nation in the world accepts this Holy sites Both sides have concern over the treatment of their holy sites under the other’s control. Historically these concerns are founded, as both sides have banned worshippers while they were in control of the region. The treatment and possible vandalism of the sites under opposing rule is a concern as well. Proposed Solutions: The most globally accepted solution is a Two State one. Since the conflict is religious in nature, it proposes splitting the region based on religion. With Palestine being comprised of the West Bank and Gaza Strip while Israel consists of the rest of the region. This would ensure that demographically Israel will have a Jewish majority with a significant Arab minority. While Palestine will have an Arab majority with a small Jewish minority. Jerusalem would serve as the capital of both nations. With the Arab part under the control of Palestine and the Jewish part under the control of Israel. Israel has expressed concerns regarding safety to this plan. As the region has been under multiple terrorist attacks, it believes that having a border so close to Palestine would increase the risk to its citizens. Case Study 2: Islamic Terrorism Islamic terrorism comprises of terrorist acts done by people in the name of Islam Ideology: The term Jihad features a prominent role in militant Islam. Jihad literally translates to â€Å"struggle† or â€Å"resistance†. Based on context and writing. This can have multiple interpretations. Peaceful interpretations include â€Å"struggling to follow the way of God†. However Jihad also has a military sense, it calls for the defence and expansion of the Islamic state. Defensive Jihad is considered an obligation of utmost importance for all Muslims, while expansionist Jihad is optional. The ideology of Islamic terrorists insists that they are initiating a defensive Jihad against the West. Terrorists believe that the Western society and its policies are actively anti – Islamic. As such they insist that their actions are in defence of their religion. The terrorists point out what they believe is a continuing war between Christianity and Islam. A war that started from the Crusades. By framing the fight as defensive, they appear to be a victim rather than an aggressor, and give struggle the very highest religious priority for all good Muslims. Many of the violent terrorist groups use jihad to fight against Western nations and Israel. Most militant Islamists oppose Israel’s existence. Another major aspect of terrorist ideology is the belief that Muslims have deviated from true Islam and must return to â€Å"pure Islam† as originally practiced during the time ofMuhammad. â€Å"Pure Islam† can only be reached by applying a literal and strict interpretation of theQuran and Muhammad’s commands. The original sources should be interpreted individually and Muslims simply should not follow the interpretations of Islamic scholars. Interpretation of the Quran from a historical, contextual perspective is corruption. In addition militants, scholars, and leaders oppose Western society for what they see as immoralsecularism. Terrorists claim that free speech has led to the proliferation ofpornography,immorality,secularism,homosexuality,feminism etc. ideas and concepts that they oppose. Conflicts: Due to their ideology, Islamic Terrorism has been in multiple conflicts throughout the world. In addition to this, Islam has had traditional rivalries with many religions. Including Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism etc. further increasing the issue. Some of the various conflict zones are: Country Main religious groups involved Type of conflict Afghanistan Extreme, radical Fundamentalist Muslim terrorist groups non-Muslims The traditional base of the Taliban and Al Qaeda. It was liberated by a joint military effort. However the Taliban is rising again and fighting continues. Iraq Kurds, Shiite Muslims, Sunni Muslims, western armed forces By mid-2006, a small scale civil war, primarily between Shiite and Sunni Muslims started. Presently, the country is in another civil war against the ISIL Kashmir Hindus Muslims Kashmir has been a contested region since the formation of India and Pakistan. Kurdistan Christians, Muslims Periodic assaults on Christians occur Middle East Jews, Muslims, Christians Israel has always been a target of religious conflict. Thus Middle East remains as a volatile zone Pakistan Sunni Shi’ite Muslims Mutual attacks, and periodic strikes by Taliban. Somalia Wahhabi and Sufi Muslims Sufi Muslims moderate version of Islam are fighting followers of the Wahhabi tradition of Islam. Thailand Buddhists Muslims Muslim rebels have been attacking southern Thailand. Solutions: As such there is no uniform solution for Islamic terrorism. The locations and grievances of each conflict are extremely varied and cannot be uniformly addressed. The terrorists also enjoy support due to the economic and social conditions of these regions. However generic solutions to address parts of this issue exist such as: Establishment of humanitarian centres to help people socially. Mobilisation of religious leaders to publicly oppose these actions and remove the militant support base. Case Study 3: The Tibet – China Conflict Background: The Tibet – China conflict is a historical and geopolitical debate. Both sides claim sovereignty of the Tibetan Plateau. Tibetans insist that they have largely been a historically independent nation, and believe the Chinese occupation to be illegal. While the Chinese claim that Tibet was a part of Chinese administration until it was annexed by the British Raj to act as a buffer between India and China and after the Raj withdrew, the Chinese were able to regain their territory in 1951. The conflict also has an ethnic and religious side. The ethnic aspect comes from the fact that the Tibetans of the Tibetan Plateau are a minority to the Han Chinese majority of China, Secondly most Tibetans are Buddhists, while religion is banned in Communist nations like China. The Chinese government has a history of persecuting religions, especially those that have widespread popularity like Buddhism has in China. Widespread persecution and the exile of the Dalai Lama have only fuelled the clash. Present Day Scenario: Tibet did not participate in international organisations like League of Nations in the early 20th Century. As such it is unable to provide sufficient evidence for its sovereignty and independence. China maintains an extremely strict stance and prevents outside intervention. However there have been known cases of genocide against Tibetans and Buddhists in particular. Also development and growth in the region seems to affect and benefit only the Han Chinese immigrants. Solutions: The most accepted solution seems to be to provide Tibet with more autonomy and freedom while keeping it under Chinese rule. This would ensure an end to religious persecution while also allowing more inclusive development in the region. Scholars also agree that the Dalai Lama must be allowed to return from exile and be an active part of the peace process. The Dalai Lama has a great influence in the Tibetan region and would be able to reassure and appease hardliners. Case Study 4: Role of Christianity in Nazism and the Holocaust During his rise to power, Hitler realised the political significance of Christianity and Christian Churches. To this effect, the Nazi party started the promotion of â€Å"Positive Christianity†. Positive Christianity differed from Christianity in many ways. Modern day historians agree that despite his claims, Hitler was anti – Christianity. He used â€Å"Positive Christianity† to justify his actions and his power. Throughout his rule, Hitler called the Nazi cause as Christian. At the same time, he utilised the historical rivalry and hatred between Christians and Jews. To justify this, â€Å"Positive Christianity† openly rejected any Jewish involvement in the Holy Bible. It: Rejected the Jewish-written parts of the Bible(including the entire Old Testament) Claimed Christ was Aryan and not Jewish Opposed the existence of the Catholic Church Promoted national unity, and wanted to put all Protestant Churches under a single national Positive Christian Church It emphasised Christ as a â€Å"positive† preacher and warrior against institutionalized Judaism Hitler also used Christianity in his justification for the Holocaust. Claiming he is continuing Christ’s work by eliminating other races. Religion as a Peacemaker Historically, religion has been a cause of conflict. However religion can also be the cause of peace. Most religions in the world advocate peace. The use of violence is advised only as a last course in defence. Even the concept of Jihad in Islam is used mainly for defending the Islamist nation. Religion can be used to eliminate the very cause of conflict itself, as opposed to merely stopping the fighting while the issues remain unaddressed. This is especially true under the following conditions. religion is a significant contributor to the conflict religious leaders on both sides wish for peace Religious leaders are of particular importance in this approach as they are trusted and respected by their communities. This enables them to: A leverage against those opposing peace Generate local, national and international support for peace Ensure promises are kept at a local level Emphasise on the maintenance of morality and humanity in peace Conflicts can be addressed by: Interfaith dialogue and interaction to address issues Proposing a solution that can address the religious and ethnic needs of both sides as a compliment to diplomatic negotiations e.g. solutions proposed for the Israel – Palestine conflict Establishment of religious peacekeeping centres in strife torn regions like Iraq etc. By this method it is possible to mobilise religion into a peaceful force that can end wars that are not only religious in nature but of other origins as well. References Beginners Guide to the Israeli Palestinian Conflict (a video available on YouTube) A Brief History of the Arab-Israeli Conflictby Jeremy Pressman BBC News reports on the Israel Palestinian Conflict ReligiousTolerance.org Conflict Over Tibet: Core Causes and Possible Solutions By Dustin Stokes â€Å"Religion and the Holocaust† by Richard E Smith â€Å"The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity† by Richard Steigmann-Gall Religious Contributions to Peacemaking: When Religion Brings Peace, Not War

Approaches to Decision Making Essay

There are two common ways to make decisions regarding changes in an organization, especially when others are involved in the end result. The two ways would be to make decisions individually, making the decision by yourself or by creating a committee, getting others involved in the process. Knowing that something needs to change, means that there has been a problem identified, evaluating alternatives and then selecting the solution. Depending on the problem and the criteria that will be evaluated in making the final decision, this will play an important factor on whether individually making the decision is better than a group decision. When making decisions and changes that are going to effect many, it typically is better to make group decisions. For larger companies, it is typical that a committee or a team would be created. Bringing together individuals of the organization that would be effected by these changes. Having a committee involved in the decision brings more views, thoughts, past experiences and suggestions to the table to be evaluated for optimal solutions. Advantages of a group decision is there are more options contributed, the better chances that decisions made would be accepted by those involved in the decision as well. â€Å"Quantities and diversity of information are greatest when group members represent different specialities†. (Robbins, DeCenzo, & Coulter, 2011, p. 71). Finding a suitable solution is half of the battle, the next half would be implementation. By having a group decision enforced, will increase the success of changes since they were a part of it and will encourage change. In the example provided about budgetary concerns, it would be suggested that a committee be created with upper management from finance, human resources, and department managers to discuss how overhead such as employees, supplies and other capital costs are effecting our business. Before having the initial meeting it would be suggested for each manager to evaluate their department and be ready to give suggestion of where they would be able to make individual changes without sacrificing the well being of the patients care. Once all contributions are made from each department, hearing the options of solutions would allow the committee members to discuss the  changes and place value on which options could be most beneficial. Options like reducing employee head count or hours, re-evaluating vendors where supplies are purchased from, eliminating overtime costs by having back up staff available or changing processes by reducing paper trails and going electronic. Each of these will need to be analyzed on immediate consequences or benefits and what the longer term effects will be. The disadvantage of working with a committee is that there will prolong the process of making a decision, more meetings, more time and there could be more resistant from individuals that will need to be â€Å"talked into† this decision. In the example about making budget cuts, one could make the decision alone and not consult with any other departments. The individual making decisions to cut staff, supplies or capital costs would need to have a comprehensive understanding of all costs associated with the organization and what implications could be by reducing budgets. Even though it is just one person making the decision, it is very important to still do a thorough evaluation of what the problems are, evaluate multiple solutions and weigh the benefits or consequences of these changes. It would be very important to obtaining financial monthly statements/costs that are associated with each department. The benefit of making decisions solely is that multiple meetings would be eliminated, do not need to â€Å"sell† your idea or solution to others, and a decision could be made quicker which will save time and money for the organization. The disadvantages of making a decision like this where it effects a group, out weigh the benefits. You do not have access to others input and past experiences who have dealt with similar situations or hearing what concerns your management will have. By not including others, you have a higher chance of the decision not being welcomed by all and having resistant to the change and implementation. References: Robbins, S., DeCenzo, D., & Coulter, M. (2011). Fundamentals of Management: Essential Concepts and Applications (7th ed.).

The Theory And Theory Of Psychology - 1811 Words

Overview The practice of psychotherapy involves several approaches and different psychologists’ often use different psychological theories to achieve their goals in treatment and interventions. However, the combination of these psychological theories is important for the improvement of psychoanalysis of patients and the treatment approaches used. This paper will, therefore, analyze three psychological theories which include; attachment theory, control mastery theory and the object relations theory. Additionally, the analysis will involve the combination of these three theories to produce and integrated approach suitable for psychoanalysis and psychotherapy. The development of the paper will involve stating the individual theories and their theorists, an explanation of each theory and a combination of the three theories to improve the practice of psychology. Attachment theory Attachment involves the enduring emotions and deep bonds that an individual expresses to another person based on time and space. The attachment theory in psychology was developed by a British psychologist known as John Bowlby through his attempts to bring an understanding of the distress that children face due to separation from their parents. The theory was developed by John Bowlby in 1958 following the professional time he had in the treatment of emotionally disturbed children in the Child Guidance Clinic in London. The theory posits that the observed characteristics in children such asShow MoreRelatedPsychology Theories And Theories Of Psychology984 Words   |  4 PagesThere are many theories and beliefs about where psychopathology originates from, that is the beauty of psychology. We can have different views that match or mismatch-specific clients and the services they are seeking, but each approach is beneficial one way or the other. 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Why Did China Lease Hong Kong to Britain

In 1997, the British handed Hong Kong back to China, the end of a 99-year-long lease and an event that was dreaded and anticipated by the residents, the Chinese, the English, and the rest of the world. Hong Kong includes 426 square miles of territory in the South China Sea, and it is today one of the most densely occupied and economically independent parts of the world. That lease came about as a result of wars over trade imbalances, opium, and the shifting power of Queen Victorias British empire.   Key Takeaways On June 9, 1898, the British under Queen Victoria brokered a 99-year lease agreement for the use of Hong Kong after China lost a series of wars fought over the British trade in tea and opium.In 1984, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Chinese Premier Zhao Ziyang negotiated the underlying plan for the lease to end, such that Hong Kong would remain a semi-autonomous region for a 50-year period after the lease ended.The lease ended on July 1, 1997, and since then tensions between the democratically-minded Hong Kong population and the PRC have continued, although Hong Kong remains functionally separate from the Chinese mainland. Hong Kong was first incorporated into China in 243 BCE, during the Warring States period and as the Qin state was beginning to grow in power. It remained almost constantly under Chinese control for the next 2,000 years. It was in 1842 under British Queen Victorias expansionist rule that Hong Kong became known as British Hong Kong. Trade Imbalances: Opium, Silver, and Tea Nineteenth-century Britain had an insatiable appetite for Chinese tea, but the Qing Dynasty and its subjects did not want to buy anything that the British produced and demanded that the British instead pay for its tea habit with silver or gold. The government of Queen Victoria did not want to use up any more of the countrys reserves of gold or silver to buy tea, and the tea importation tax generated during the transactions was a major percentage of the British economy. Victorias government decided to forcibly export opium from the British-colonized Indian subcontinent to China. There, opium would then be exchanged for tea. Chinas government, not too surprisingly, objected to the large-scale importation of narcotics into their country by a foreign power. At the time, most of Britain didnt view opium as a particular danger; to them, it was a medicine. China, however, was experiencing an opium crisis, with its military forces suffering direct impacts from their addictions. There were politicians in England such as William Ewart Gladstone (1809–1898) who did recognize the danger and objected strenuously; but at the same time, there were men who made their fortunes, such as the prominent U.S. opium trader Warren Delano (1809–1898), the grandfather of future president Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945). Opium Wars When the Qing government discovered that banning opium imports outright did not work—because British merchants simply smuggled the drug into China—they took more direct action. In 1839, Chinese officials destroyed 20,000 bales of opium. This move provoked Britain to declare war in order to protect its illegal drug-smuggling operations. The First Opium War lasted from 1839 to 1842. Britain invaded the Chinese mainland  and occupied the island of Hong Kong on Jan. 25, 1841, using it as a military staging point.  China lost the war and had to cede Hong Kong to Britain in the Treaty of Nanking. As a result, Hong Kong became a crown colony of the British Empire. Leasing Hong Kong The Treaty of Nanking did not, however, resolve the opium trade dispute, and the conflict escalated again, into the Second Opium War. The settlement of that conflict was the first Convention of Peking, ratified on Oct. 18, 1860, when Britain acquired the southern part of the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island (Ngong Shuen Chau). The British grew increasingly worried about the security of their free port at British Hong Kong during the second half of the 19th century. It was an isolated island, surrounded by areas still under Chinese control. On June 9, 1898, the British signed a deal with the Chinese to lease Hong Kong, Kowloon, and the New Territories—the remainder of Kowloon Peninsula north of Boundary Street, more territory beyond Kowloon into the Sham Chun River, and over 200 outlying islands. Hong Kongs British governors pressed for outright ownership, but the Chinese, while weakened by the first Sino-Japanese War, negotiated a more reasonable cession to finally end the war. That legally binding lease was to last 99 years. To Lease or Not to Lease Several times in the first half of the 20th century, Britain considered relinquishing the lease back to China because the island simply wasnt terribly important to England anymore. But in 1941 Japan seized Hong Kong. U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt tried to pressure British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874–1965) to return the island to China as a concession for their support in the war, but Churchill refused. At the end of World War II, the British still controlled Hong Kong, although the Americans continued to pressure them to return it to China. By 1949, the Peoples Liberation Army led by Mao Zedong (1893–1976) had taken over China, and the West was now afraid that Communists would get their hands on a suddenly invaluable post for espionage, especially during the Korean War. While the Gang of Four did consider sending troops to Hong Kong in 1967, they ultimately did not sue for the return of Hong Kong. Moving Toward the Handover On Dec. 19, 1984, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013) and Chinese Premier Zhao Ziyang (1919–2005) signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration, in which Britain agreed to return not only the New Territories but also Kowloon and British Hong Kong itself when the lease term expired. Under the declarations terms, Hong Kong would become a special administrative region (SAR) under the Peoples Republic of China (PRC), and it was expected to enjoy a high degree of autonomy outside of foreign and defense affairs. For a period of 50 years after the end of the lease, Hong Kong would remain a free port with a separate customs territory and sustain markets for free exchange. Hong Kong citizens could continue to practice capitalism and political freedoms forbidden on the mainland. After the agreement, Britain began to implement a broader level of democracy in Hong Kong. The first democratic government in Hong Kong was formed in the late 1980s, consisting of functional constituencies and direct elections. The stability of those changes became doubtful after the Tiananmen Square incident (Beijing, China, June 3–4, 1989) when an undetermined number of protesting students were massacred. Half a million people in Hong Kong went on marches to protest. While the Peoples Republic of China rejected the democratization of Hong Kong, the region had become enormously lucrative. Hong Kong only became a major metropolis after the British possession, and during the 150 years of the occupation, the city had grown and thrived. Today it is considered one of the most significant financial centers and trade ports in the world. Handover On July 1, 1997, the lease ended and the government of Great Britain transferred control of British Hong Kong and the surrounding territories to the Peoples Republic of China. The transition has been more or less smooth, although human rights issues and Beijings desire for greater political control cause considerable friction from time to time. Events since 2004—particularly in the summer of 2019—have shown that universal suffrage continues to be a rallying point for Hongkongers, while the PRC is clearly reluctant to allow Hong Kong to achieve full political freedom. Sources Cheng, Joseph Y.S. The Future of Hong Kong: A Hong Kong Belongers View. International Affairs 58.3 (1982): 476–88. Print.Fung, Anthony Y.H., and Chi Kit Chan. Post-Handover Identity: Contested Cultural Bonding Between China and Hong Kong. Chinese Journal of Communication 10.4 (2017): 395–412. Print.Li, Kui-Wai. Chapter 18—Hong Kong 1997–2047: The Political Scene. Redefining Capitalism in Global Economic Development. Academic Press, 2017. 391–406. Print.Maxwell, Neville. Sino-British Confrontation over Hong Kong. Economic and Political Weekly 30.23 (1995): 1384–98. Print.Meyer, Karl E. The Opium Wars Secret History. The New York Times,  June 28, 1997. Print.Tsang, Steve. A Modern History of Hong Kong. London: I.B. Tauris Co. Ltd, 2007. Print.Yahuda, Michael. Hong Kongs Future: Sino-British Negotiations, Perceptions, Organization and Political Culture. International Affairs 69.2 (1993): 245–66. Print.Yip, Anastasia. Hong Kong and Chin a: One Country, Two Systems, Two Identities. Global Societies Journal 3 (2015). Print.